Invasion of Iceland

In 1918, after years of Danish rule Iceland became an independent state, but remained in union with Denmark. Iceland declared itself a neutral country without a defence force.

As World War Two developed the Germans launched Operation Weserubung on the 9^th April 1940, invading both Norway and Denmark. Denmark fell within a day and was occupied by the Germans. With Denmark defeated the British government sent Iceland’s government a message stating that Britain was willing to assist Iceland in maintaining her independence but would require facilities in Iceland to do so. Britain also invited Iceland to join the war as an ally, but they rejected Britain’s offer.

On April 12^th Britain took over the Faroe Islands. With the occupation of Norway and Denmark, the British became concerned that Germany would try to establish a military presence in Iceland which would be an intolerable threat to British control of the North Atlantic. The British were also very eager to obtain bases in Iceland to strengthen their Northern Patrol.

 

As the situation in Norway deteriorated, the British Admiralty came to the conclusion that Britain could no longer do without military bases in Iceland. On the 6^th May Churchill presented the case to the War Cabinet. Churchill maintained that if further negotiating with the Icelandic government were attempted, the Germans might learn of them and act first. A more effective solution was to land troops unannounced and present the Icelandic government with no other option.

The allies became increasingly concerned by the strategic importance of Iceland and the number of German diplomats present in the country. In an attempt to deny Iceland to the Germans, the British Royal Navy and Royal Marines took part in an operation, code named Operation Fork, on the 10^th May 1940 to invade Iceland.

The operation was organised hastily with much of the plan being conducted on route. The force had very few maps and most were of poor quality, including some drawn from memory, and no one in the force was fluent in Icelandic. The British intended to land all their forces at Reykjavik where they could overcome resistance and defeat local Germans. To guard against a German counterattack by sea, they would secure the harbor and send troops by land to nearby Hvalfjörður. The British were also worried that the Germans might airlift troops, as they had done with great success in Norway. To guard against this, troops would drive east to the landing grounds at Sandskeið and Kaldaðarnes. Lastly, troops would be sent by land to the harbor at Akureyri and the landing ground at Melgerði in the north of the country.

On May 3^rd 1940 the 2^nd Royal Marine Battalion in Surrey were made ready to move in two hours to an unknown destination. The troops were mostly new recruits and only partially trained. On May 7^th the force headed to the harbor at Greenock and made to board the cruisers Berwick and Glasgow. There were numerous delays and as a result, they didn’t leave until May 8^th and even left large amounts of equipment on the piers. The cruisers were not designed to take a force of this size and conditions were cramped. Despite good weather, most of the marines developed severe seasickness and one of the new recruits committed suicide on route.

At 01:47 on May 10^th, they launched a Supermarine Walrus reconnaissance aircraft to scout enemy submarines that the British were convinced were operating from Iceland’s harbors. Despite orders not to fly over Reykjavik itself, it flew several circles over the city making considerable noise, waking up a number of people and losing the element of surprise.

Werner Gerlach, the German consul was alerted to the aircraft and suspecting what was about to happen drove down to the harbor. Using his binoculars, he confirmed his fears before hurrying back home to arrange the burning of all his documents.

At 03:40 an Icelandic policeman saw a small fleet of warships approaching that were about to violate Icelandic neutrality. A boat loaded with 400 Marines landed at the harbor at 5am and a crowd had assembled along with several police. The locals were asked not to interfere with the British Troops so not to cause conflicts between them and the Icelanders, although some of the locals protested the British presence.

Operations began in Reykjavik, a notice was posted on the post office in broken Icelandic that British Forces were occupying the city and asked for cooperation in dealing with local Germans. The telecommunication and broadcasting services were quickly put under British control to prevent news of an invasion reaching Berlin.

Priority was put on finding the German consulate. British troops were relieved to meet no resistance and simply knocked on the consulate’s door. He protested against the British invasion saying Iceland was a neutral country, only to be reminded in turn that Denmark had also been a neutral country. The British discovered a fire upstairs with a pile of documents burning. They then extinguished this and were able to salvage a number of records. The British rounded up and captured the Germans in Iceland without resistance.

On the evening of 10th May, the government of Iceland issued a protest, charging that its neutrality had been “flagrantly violated” and “its independence infringed”, noting that compensation would be expected for all damage done. The British promised compensation, favorable business agreements, non-interference in Icelandic affairs, and the withdrawal of all forces at the end of the war. Resigning themselves to the situation, the Icelandic authorities provided the invasion force with de facto cooperation, though formally maintaining a policy of neutrality.

Although the British action was to forestall any risk of a German invasion, there is no evidence that the Germans had an invasion planned. After the British invasion, the Germans drew up a report to examine the feasibility of seizing Iceland. The report found that while an invasion could be successful, maintaining supply lines would be too costly and the benefits of holding Iceland would not outweigh the costs.

Battle of Islandbridge

In 919, a number of Irish Kings joined together to try and expel the Vikings from Dublin once more. The native Irish coalition was led by Niall Glúndub, overking of Northern Ui Néill and High King of Ireland against the Dublin Based Vikings of the Uí Ímair led by Sitric Cáech.

The ruling Vikings of Dublin had been expelled from the city in 902, however this was only temporary and Viking raids continued into Irish settlements.

In 914, a large fleet came to the previously Viking held city of Waterford and in the following year more settled in Limerick.

In 917 two prominent members of the Vikings of Uí Ímair, Ragnall and Sitric Cáech sailed two fleets to Ireland. Ragnall landed in Waterford and Sitric landed at Cenn Fuait in Leinster. Several Irish kings joined forces to try and drive the Vikings away again. At the Battle of Mag Femen in Brega the Vikings won a great Victory over the Irish forces and then another at Cenn Fuait. Sitric led his men on a triumphant return to Dublin re-establishing Viking control and installing himself as King while Ragnall returned to England.

In 919, the Irish Kings Niall Glúndub of Northern Ui Néill, Áed mac Eochocáin of Ulster, Máel Mithig mac Flannacain of Brega, Mael Craibe mac Duibsinig of Airgilla, Conchobarmac Flann of Mide and Cellach mac Fogartaig of South Brega intended to push the Vikings from Dublin. The Irish Kings were emboldened by the departure of Ragnall back to England and marched against the Vikings.

The Irish forces and Vikings met near Islandbridge (modern day County Dublin) on the 14^th September 919. The battle was a disaster for the Irish, the Kings Niall Glúndub, Áed mac Eochocáin, Máel Mithig mac Flannacain, Mael Craibe mac Duibsinig, Conchobar mac Flainn and Cellach mac Fogartaig were all slain in the battle along with many Irish nobles. The failure of the coalition to drive out the Vikings ensured their hold on Dublin remained strong until 1014.

 

 

(I do not own the rights to the images used, they are artist’s own impressions)

John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford

John de Vere was born on 8^th September 1442, he was the second son of John de Vere 12^th Earl of Oxford and Elizabeth Howard.

In February 1462, his elder brother Aubrey de Vere was convicted of high treason before John Tiptoft, 1^st Earl of Worcester and Constable of England for plotting against King Edward IV.

King Edward allowed for John de Vere to succeed his father as Earl of Oxford. On May 26th 1465 he was named a Knight of the Bath at the coronation of King Edward’s wife Elizabeth Woodville. He was officiated at the ceremony as both Lord Great Chamberlain, due to the absence of the Earl of Warwick who held the current position, and as Chamberlain to the Queen.

In 1468 he was committed to the Tower of London and confessed to plotting with the Lancastrians against the King. However, he was released and given a general pardon on the 5^th April 1469.

By July 1469 Oxford had joined with the discontented Yorkists led by his Brother-in-Law, The Earl of Warwick and the King’s brother the Duke of Clarence. Oxford fled overseas to the court of King Henry VI’s Wife Margaret of Anjou.

In September 1470 Oxford joined with Warwick and Clarence in the invasion of England which restored Henry VI to the throne. De Vere was appointed Lord High Constable of England and on the 15^th October, he tried and condemned the Earl of Worcester for high treason. The same Earl who, in 1462, condemned his Brother.

In March 1471, Oxford prevented Edward IV’s army from landing in Norfolk and was in command of the right wing at the Battle of Barnet on the 14^th April 1471, defeating the forces of Lord Hastings. However, these early successes turned to disaster when Oxford’s men started pillaging. Oxford tried to lead them back to the fight but due to the fog they lost their way, emerging on their own forces who mistook Oxford Vere Star as Edward’s Sun. They were met with a volley of arrows from their own side.

After this defeat, Oxford fled to Scotland with only 40 men and his two brothers and was stripped of his lands and titles. He set off from here to France to collect ships and engaged in privateering. On 28^th May 1473 Oxford attempted to land unsuccessfully at St Osyth in Essex. However on 30^th September 1473 he took St Michael’s Mount in Cornwall. He was besieged here for many months. During this time most of his men deserted and Oxford was wounded in the face by and arrow. He finally surrendered on 15^th February 1474.

After his capture he was imprisoned at Hammes Castle in Calais in 1475. In 1478 Oxford scaled the walls of Hammes and leapt into the moat. The new king of England Richard III ordered Oxford’s transfer to England, but before this could take place Oxford has escaped and joined the Earl of Richmond.

At the Battle of Bosworth Oxford commanded Henry VII’s vanguard and archers using a formation called the Oxford wedge. This penetrated Richard III’s army in the shape of an arrow, as well as holding Richmond’s vanguard in fierce fighting in which the Duke of Norfolk, who led Richard’s troops, was slain.

Oxford was immediately recognised as one of the great men of Henry VII’s regime. He was restored to his estates and titles and received many appointments, these included Lord Admiral, Chief Steward of the Duchy of Lancaster and Constable of the Tower of London. He was also appointed as the first Captain of the Yeoman of the Guard. He was sworn into the Privy Council and was recognised as Lord Great Chamberlain of England. As Chamberlain, he officiated the coronations of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. By 1486 he was made a member of the Order of the Garter and stood as Godfather to the Kings eldest son Arthur, Prince of Wales.

Oxford continued fighting for Henry VII and led the Vanguard at Stoke during the final battle of the Wars of the Roses in 1487. He was also one of the commanders against the Cornish Rebels at Blackheath in 1497.

When King Henry VIII ascended to the throne, Oxford continued in high favour and again was the Lord Great Chamberlain for his coronation. He resided at Castle Hedingham in Essex, adding to the 12^th Century keep.

Oxford died on the 10^th March 1513 at Castle Hedingham. He was succeeded as Earl by his Nephew as he had had no sons of his own.

 

 

(I do not own the rights to the images used, they are artist’s impressions)